Why Clarification Formulae for ELLs?
After establishing that differences of language or language proficiency require speakers to contribute differently to conversation, the next step is to help students improve their conversation skills. For ELLs, it is important that they be able to point out misunderstandings. When they are not completely reliant on proficient speakers to check, diagnose, and fix problems, ELLs are able to control the buildup of confusion and lack of understanding. The more explicitly an ELL is able to indicate the source of difficulty, the easier it is for a more proficient speaker to help fix the problem.
The concept of face as a social construct plays an important role in many cultures, meaning dignity or self-respect. Threats to face are likely to arise, possibly for both parties, when problems of understanding are pointed out. If the conversation is to continue productively, it is necessary to minimize these threats. One way of doing this is to equip students with conventional ways of requesting clarification (e.g., Pardon). For more than 30 years, it has been recognized that much of a speaker’s language is simply conventional, a stock of formulae, cliches, idioms, quotations, allusions, and other routines (Vihman, 1982). Clarification formulae are worth teaching because they enable ELLs to overcome misunderstanding with minimal disruption to conversation.
One way to develop face-saving language for negotiating misunderstandings is to begin by building up a chart of formulae used by proficient speakers. In addition to signals that one is following the conversation or not, formulae that enable learners to act like proficient speakers of a language should be included (Thornbury & Slade, 2006). These are formulae that take the focus off learner status, attributing problems to external factors: Sorry It’s noisy in here. Also include formulae that enable learners to “buy time” by pretending not to have heard (Pardon Sorry Eh), repeating the speaker’s question (You mean…), or using delaying noises or fillers (well, urn, er).
ELLs can be encouraged to keep a personal phrasebook of formulae for negotiating meaning. Include a page at the back with a table on which they can record their use of the formulae in authentic conversations. Encourage students to listen to how others negotiate understanding in conversations. This ensures formulae are up-to-date and contextually appropriate, and potentially strengthens dispositions to independent lifelong language learning. Have students share discoveries with the class and add to their phrasebooks formulae they would like to use.
Students might also enjoy playing games and writing with conversational formulae. Set a fun challenge: What is the most complex combination of conversational formulae you can come up with (Sorry, you want to know what I think about this Well, urn, it depends, actually…; Thornbury & Slade, 2006). You might also work with your students to write a humorous book featuring conversational formulae (Cappellini, 2005). Include repetition and a progressive buildup of formulae. Younger adolescents might enjoy using the book in shared book reading sessions; older students might enjoy preparing a reading of the book for children. In either case, your animated reading of the book will enable students to read along and build fluency.
As students’ control of clarification formulae improves, view some clips of conversations demonstrating low-level intercultural resources. You might ask groups of students to script and record these conversations and screen them for others in the class. Analyze the clips with the students: What might the speakers have done to improve the conversation Role-play improved versions of the conversations.
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