Cree language
Dialect criteria
The Cree dialect continuum can be divided by many criteria. Dialects spoken from northern Ontario and coastal north-western Quebec make a distinct difference between // (sh as in she) and /s/, while those to the west (where both are pronounced /s/) and east (where both are pronounced either // or /h/) do not. In several dialects, including northern Plains Cree and Woods Cree, the long vowels /e/ and /i/ have merged into a single vowel, /i/. In the Qubec communities of Chisasibi, Whapmagoostui, and Kawawachikamach, the long vowel /e/ has merged with /a/.
However, the most transparent phonological variation between different Cree dialects are the reflexes of Proto-Algonquian *l in the modern dialects, as shown below:
Dialect
Location
Reflex
of *l
Word for “Native person”
*elenyiwa
Word for “You”
*kla
Plains Cree
SK, AB, BC, NT
y
iyiniw
kiya
Woods Cree
MB, SK
/th
iiniw/ithiniw
ka/ktha
Swampy Cree
ON, MB, SK
n
ininiw
kna
Moose Cree
ON
l
ililiw
kla
Northern East Cree
QC
y
yiy
y
Southern East Cree
QC
y
iyn
y
Kawawachikamach Naskapi
QC
y
iyy
y
Atikamekw
QC
r
iriniw
kra
Western Innu
QC
l
iln
l
Eastern Innu
QC, NL
n
inn
n
The Plains Cree, speakers of the y dialect, refer to their language as nhiyawwin, whereas Woods Cree speakers say nhithawwin, and Swampy Cree speakers say nhinawwin. This is similar to the alternation in the Siouan languages Dakota, Nakota, and Lakota.
Another important phonological variation among the Cree dialects involves the palatalisation of Proto-Algonquian *k: East of the Ontario-Quebec border (except for Atikamekw), Proto-Algonquian *k has changed into /t/ or /ts/ (ch as in cheese and ts as in Watson) before front vowels. See the table above for examples in the *kla column.
Very often the Cree dialect continuum is divided into two languages: Cree and Montagnais. Cree includes all dialects which have not undergone the *k -> /t/ sound change (BCC) while Montagnais encompasses the territory where this sound change has occurred (QCL). These labels are very useful from a linguistic perspective but are confusing as East Cree then qualifies as Montagnais. For practical purposes, Cree usually covers the dialects which use syllabics as their orthography (including Atikamekw but excluding Kawawachikamach Naskapi), the term Montagais then applies to those dialects using the Latin script (excluding Atikamekw and including Kawawachikamach Naskapi). The term Naskapi typically refers to Kawawachikamach (y-dialect) and Natuashish (n-dialect).
Dialect groups
We can broadly classify the Cree dialects into nine groups. From west to east:
ISO-3
ISO-3 name
Linguasphere
Linguasphere name
dialect type
additional comments
cre
Cree (generic)
62-ADA-a
Cree
A rough map of Cree dialect areas
crk
Plains Cree
62-ADA-aa
Plains Cree
y / k
Divided to Southern Plains Cree (Nhiyawwin) and Northern Plains Cree (Nhiyawmowin)
cwd
Woods Cree
(Nhithawwin)
62-ADA-ab
Woods Cree
th / k
Also known as “Woods/Rocky Cree”. In this dialect has merged into .
crw
Swampy Cree
(Nhinawwin)
62-ADA-ac
Swampy Cree, West
(Ininmowin)
n / k
Also known as “West Main Cree.” In the western dialect, has merged with s.
62-ADA-ad
Swampy Cree, East (Ininiwi-Iikiwwin)
crm
Moose Cree
(Ililmowin)
62-ADA-ae
Moose Cree
l / k
Also known as “West Main Cree.” “Central Main Cree,” “West Shore Cree,” or “York Cree.”
crl
Northern East Cree
(yiy Ayimn)
62-ADA-af
Cree, East
y /
Also known as “James Bay Cree” or “East Main Cree”. The long vowels and have merged in the northern dialect but are distinct in the southern. Also, the inland southern dialect has lost the distinction between s and . Here, the inland southern dialect falls in line with the rest of the Montagnais groups where both phonemes have become . Nonetheless, the people from the two areas easily communicate.
crj
Southern East Cree
(n Ayimn)
62-ADA-ag
Cree, Southeast
62-ADA-b
Innu
nsk
Naskapi
62-ADA-ba
Mushau Innuts
62-ADA-baa
Koksoak
y /
Western Naskapi (Kawawachikamach)
62-ADA-bab
Davis Inlet
n /
Eastern Naskapi (Mushuau Innu or Natuashish)
moe
Montagnais
62-ADA-bb
Uashau Innuts + Bersimis
62-ADA-bbe
Pointe Bleue
l /
Western Montagnais (Leluwewn); also known as the “Betsiamites dialect”
62-ADA-bbd
Escoumains
62-ADA-bbc
Bersimis
62-ADA-bbb
Uashaui Innuts
n /
Western Montagnais (Nehilawewin), but sometimes called “Central Montagnais” or “Piyekwkam dialect”
62-ADA-bba
Mingan
n /
Eastern Montagnais (Innu-aimn)
62-ADA-c
Atikamekw
atj
Atikamekw
(Nehirmowin)
62-ADA-ca
Manawan
r / k
62-ADA-cb
Wemotaci
62-ADA-cc
Opitciwan
Phonology
This table is made to show all possible (consonant) phonemes that may be included in a Cree language.
Consonant phonemes
Bilabial
Labio-
dental
Dental
Alveolar
Post-
alveolar
Palatal
Velar
Glottal
Nasal
m
n
Plosive
p
t
k
Affricate
ts
t
Fricative
s
h
Approximant
w
j
Lateral
l
Syntax
Like many Native American languages, Cree features a complex polysynthetic morphology and syntax. A Cree word can be very long, and express something that takes a series of words in English. For example, the Plains Cree word for “school” is kiskinohamtowikamik, “Know-by.hand-caus-applicative-reciprocal-place,” “The knowing-it-together-by-example place”.
Written Cree
Cree dialects, except for those spoken in eastern Quebec and Labrador, are traditionally written using Cree syllabics, a variant of Canadian Aboriginal syllabics, but can be written with the Roman alphabet as well. The easternmost dialects are written using the Roman alphabet exclusively.
Cree dialects for the James Bay Cree are written using Cree syllabics.
Contact languages
Cree was also a component language in two contact languages unique to Western Canada. Michif is a mixed language combining Cree and French. Bungee is a dialect of English with substrate influences from Cree and Scottish Gaelic. Both languages were spoken by Mtis voyageurs and settlers in Western Canada. Michif is still spoken in central Canada and in North Dakota. Many Cree words also became the basis for words in the Chinook Jargon trade language used until some point after contact with Europeans.[citation needed]
Legal status
A Cree/English/French stop sign in Qubec
The social and legal status of Cree varies across Canada. Cree is one of the eleven official languages of the Northwest Territories, but is only spoken by a small number of people there in the area around the town of Fort Smith.
In many areas, it is a vibrant community language still spoken by large majorities and taught in schools. In other areas, its use has declined dramatically. Cree is one of the least endangered aboriginal languages in North America, but is nonetheless at risk since it possesses little institutional support in most areas.
References
Ethnologue entry for Cree-Montagnais-Naskapi
Ahenakew, Freda, Cree Language Structures: A Cree Approach. Pemmican Publications Inc., 1987. ISBN 0-919143-42-3
Steller, Lea-Katharina (ne Virghalmy): Alkalmazkodni s jat adni avagy ccomodatio a paleogrfiban In: Paleogrfiai kalandozsok. Szentendre, 1995. ISBN 963-450-922-3
Wolfart, H. C. & Freda Ahenakew, The Student’s Dictionary of Literary Plains Cree. Memoir 15, Algonquian and Iroquoian Linguistics, 1998. ISBN 0-921064-15-2
Wolvengrey, Arok, ed. nhiawwin: itwwina / Cree: Words / : [includes Latin orthography and Cree syllabics]. [Cree-English English-Cree Dictionary – Volume 1: Cree-English; Volume 2: English-Cree]. Canadian Plains Research Center, 15 October 2001. ISBN 0-88977-127-8
Bloomfield, Leonard. Plains Cree Texts. New York: AMS Press, 1974. ISBN 0404581668
Castel, Robert J., and David Westfall. Castel’s English-Cree Dictionary and Memoirs of the Elders Based on the Woods Cree of Pukatawagan, Manitoba. Brandon, Man: Brandon University Northern Teacher Education Program, 2001. ISBN 0968985807
Dahlstrom, Amy. Plains Cree Morphosyntax. Outstanding dissertations in linguistics. New York: Garland Pub, 1991. ISBN 0815301723
Ellis, C. D. Spoken Cree, Level I, west coast of James Bay. Edmonton: University of Alberta Press, 2000. ISBN 0888643470
Junker, Marie-Odile, Marguerite MacKenzie, Luci Salt, Alice Duff, Daisy Moar & Ruth Salt (rds) (2007-2008) Le Dictionnaire du cri de l’Est de la Baie James sur la toile: franais-cri et cri-franais (dialectes du Sud et du Nord).
LeClaire, Nancy, George Cardinal, Earle H. Waugh, and Emily Hunter. Alberta Elders’ Cree Dictionary = Alperta Ohci Kehtehayak Nehiyaw Otwestamakewasinahikan. Edmonton: University of Alberta Press, 1998. ISBN 0888643098
MacKenzie, Marguerite, Marie-Odile Junker, Luci Salt, Elsie Duff, Daisy Moar, Ruth Salt, Ella Neeposh & Bill Jancewicz (eds) (2004-2008) The Eastern James Bay Cree Dictionary on the Web : English-Cree and Cree-English (Northern and Southern dialect).
Norman, Howard A. The Wishing Bone Cycle Narrative Poems from the Swampy Cree Indians. New York: Stonehill Pub. Co, 1976. ISBN 0883730456
Hirose, Tomio. Origins of predicates evidence from Plains Cree. Outstanding dissertations in linguistics. New York: Routledge, 2003. ISBN 0415967791
Wolfart, H. Christoph. Plains Cree A Grammatical Study. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, new ser., v. 63, pt. 5. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1973. ISBN 0871696355
Notes
^ a b Statistics Canada: 2006 Census
^ a b Northwest Territories Official Languages Act, 1988 (as amended 1988, 1991-1992, 2003)
See also
Aboriginal peoples in Canada portal
Cree Dictionary
Cree people
The Gift of Language and Culture Project
External links
Cree language edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Gift of Language and Culture website
Nehinawe: Speak Cree
Cree Language Lessons
The East Cree language web
Cree on-line Spelling Lessons
The Cree-Innu linguistic atlas
On-line Eastern James Bay Cree dictionary (covers both Northern and Southern dialects)
Our Languages: Cree (Saskatchewan Indian Cultural Centre)
Languagegeek: CreepenType font repository of aboriginal languages (including Cree).
CBC Digital Archiveseyou Istchee: Land of the Cree
On-line Cree dictionary
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Languages of Quebec
French (official language)
English Algonquin Atikamekw Abenaki Cree Malecite-Passamaquoddy Mkmaq Mohawk Innu-aimun Inuktitut
Categories: Cree language | Central Algonquian languages | Indigenous languages of the AmericasHidden categories: Articles to be merged from November 2008 | All articles to be merged | All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from April 2009
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